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9	9	Hypotheses and models were tested across three different domains and data-sets: 1) a worldwide sample of about 100 largely nonindustrial (“traditional”) societies described by ethnographers; 2) a worldwide sample of prehistoric traditions described by archaeologists; 3) and a worldwide sample of contemporary countries with data collected through individual interviews. To compliment data on natural hazards from historical and contemporary observations, a climatologist obtained rainfall and temperature data to arrive at independent measures of environmental predictability and variability. Controlling for type of economy and political system, predictable patterns of resilient behaviors in time and space were expected in the face of unpredictable hazards—such as contingency plans, subsistence diversification, and sociocultural transformations that expand and solidify cooperation and networks. More specifically, the sociocultural transformations were theorized to include higher levels of food and labor sharing, more communal property, more subsistence diversification, stronger norms and punishment (cultural "tightness"), changes in leadership strategies, and more belief that gods are involved with weather.
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11		-In our comparison of nonindustrial societies we have found that societies with more resource stressors generally have: 1) more customary community food and labor sharing; “tighter” cultures (those with stronger norms and more punishment for deviation from rules); and 3) beliefs that gods are involved with weather in some way and can help or harm food supply with weather.  Results regarding subsistence diversification and communal property were more nuanced. Climate instabililty and chronic scarcity predicted more diversification, but famine and more frequent natural hazards did not.  With regard to communal property, the difficulty of defending land was a more important predictor than any resource stressors, but drought was a minor predictor. The sharing and subsistence diversification findings are consistent with the idea that these practices buffer risk and help ensure more stable access to food in the face of resource stress. Cultural “tightness” theory suggests that stronger adherence to rules may be especially adaptive under ecological threat because tightness may bolster cooperation and coordination. And yet, as a comparison of 32 nations suggests, moderate tightness might be more adaptive than too much tightness or too much looseness because extreme scores are associated with worse health and well-being outcomes. Comparisons of both nonindustrial societies and nations suggest that “tighter” societies may produce more authoritarianism and ethnocentrism.  more subsistence diversification~-~-both relying on different types of subsistence strategies as well as using diverse types of land and water landscapes for collecting and producing food.
	11	+In our comparison of nonindustrial societies we have found that societies with more resource stressors generally have: 1) more customary community food and labor sharing; “tighter” cultures (those with stronger norms and more punishment for deviation from rules); and 3) beliefs that gods are involved with weather in some way and can help or harm food supply with weather.  Results regarding subsistence diversification and communal property were more nuanced. Climate instabililty and chronic scarcity predicted more diversification, but famine and more frequent natural hazards did not.  With regard to communal property, the difficulty of defending land was a more important predictor than any resource stressors, but drought was a minor predictor. The sharing and subsistence diversification findings are consistent with the idea that these practices buffer risk and help ensure more stable access to food in the face of resource stress. Cultural “tightness” theory suggests that stronger adherence to rules may be especially adaptive under ecological threat because tightness may bolster cooperation and coordination. And yet, as a comparison of 32 nations suggests, moderate tightness might be more adaptive than too much tightness or too much looseness because extreme scores are associated with worse health and well-being outcomes. Comparisons of both nonindustrial societies and nations suggest that “tighter” societies may produce more authoritarianism and ethnocentrism.
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14	14	~* This 5-year project (2014-2019) was supported by the NSF Interdisciplinary Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (IBSS) program (SMA-1416651) in a grant to the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) at Yale University. PI:  Carol R. Ember (HRAF);  co-PIs: Michele J. Gelfand (Stanford), Benjamin Felzer (Lehigh University), Eric C. Jones (University of Texas-Houston), and Peter N. Peregrine (Lawrence University). Senior Researchers: Teferi Abate Adem (HRAF) and Ian Skoggard (HRAF).